Exploring how mindfulness may enhance perceived value of travel experience

ABSTRACT This study aims to explore the effect of tourists’ mindfulness on the perceived value of travel experience (PVTE) through destination images (cognitive, affective, and conative) and tourist experiences. Data (n = 370) were gathered using a self-administered structured questionnaire distributed to travellers departing from Lisbon International airport towards Spain in July 2017. The results show the important role of mindfulness in shaping all dimensions of destination image. Tourist experience acts as a mediator between destination images and PVTE. However, perceived authenticity does not have a moderating, but rather a controlling effect on the relationship between tourist experience and PVTE. From a theoretical point of view, the study makes important contribution in conceptualising the influence of a tourist’s mindfulness on PVTE through destination image components and tourist experience. From a practical perspective, it offers practitioners and DMOs valuable insights into the effective design and implementation of suitable destination marketing activities.

Recent research clearly shows that tourists tend to spend more when the perceived value of tourism product experience exceeds their expectations or when they value offerings of additional experiential value (Chang, 2018). Notwithstanding tourism scholars have exemplified the central role of perceived value of travel experience (PVTE) for delineating tourists' intentions and actual selection of tourism destinations (e.g. Hutchinson, Lai, & Wang, 2009;Kim & Thapa, 2018;Petrick, 2004), there is still lack of research on unravelling the factors that influence the formation of PVTE, with only a handful of notable exceptions (i.e. Bajs, 2015;Frías-Jamilena, Sabiote-Ortiz, Martín-Santana, & Beerli-Palacio, 2018). Specifically, PVTE has been so far utilised either as an antecedent (exogenous variable) (e.g. Lu, Chi, & Liu, 2015) or mediator in behavioural conceptualisations, transmitting the effect of variables such as perceived quality, costs, cultural motivation (e.g. Bajs, 2015;Kolar & Zabkar, 2010). For example, past research has regarded perceived value as it originates from destination image (e.g. Chiang & Jang, 2007;Jin, Goh, Huffman, & Yuan, 2015;Kim, Holland, & Han, 2013), though the widely accepted attribute-based conceptualisation of destination image proposed by Gartner (1993). Yet, the association between destination dimensions of image and PVTE has not been implemented to date.
Researchers also recognise the importance of mindfulnessdefined as tourists' attention, focus, awareness and non-judgement about their thoughts and perceptions about the destination (Kang & Gretzel, 2012)in influencing a tourist's cognitive, affective and behavioural responses (e.g. Bishop et al., 2004;Bodhi, 2011;Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Despite this, the concept has not been included when implementing value-based theory related models within a tourist destination context and so there are no past studies to create a flow showing how mindfulness can contribute to enhancing PVTE (e.g. Jin et al., 2015;Kim et al., 2013). Then, according to Ryan (2010) tourists seek for authenticity (here understood as the tourists' evaluative judgment of how genuine their experiences at a destination are), and this is why tourism marketers and managers should be designing experiences that include some authentic elements. In fact, authenticity is deemed as an antecedent of various behavioural factors, and important driver of tourist satisfaction and behaviour, but still research about its influence on tourist experience is limited (Kirillova, Lehto, & Cai, 2017). Moreover, a few researchers have indicated that perceived authenticity may also play an important role as a moderator, based on empirical evidence on relationships between tourists' imagery of a destination, as well as motivations, and their behavioural intentions (Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2011).
To further understand these relationships and knowing that past research tends to regard the stimuli of the experience at a destination as resulting from destination image (e.g. Agapito, Oom do Valle, & Mendes, 2013;Beerli & Martín, 2004;Fayzullaev, Cassel, & Brandt, 2018), experiencing the travel itself on behalf of the tourist is incorporated as an explanatory mechanism, linking mindfulness to PVTE through destination images. Therefore, the main aim of the study is to better understand how tourists' perceived value of travel experience is shaped. In doing so, the effect of a tourist's mindfulness on the perceived value of travel experience (PVTE) through destination images (cognitive, affective, and conative) and the evaluation of the travel experience are explored. Second, we analyse the mediating role of tourist experience in the relationship between destination images and PVTE. Third, we also examine the potential moderating effect of perceived authenticity on the relationship between tourist experiences and PVTE. These are devised via a primary research scheme, gathering data from Lisbon's inbound tourism, and analysed utilising variance-based structural modelling to estimate simultaneously the significance and direction of all hypothesised effects.
The study offers a range of contributions. First, it considers PVTE as an outcome variable to explain the mechanisms that create it, thus contributing to better understanding of how tourists' evaluative process of their travel experience is shaped. Second, it exemplifies the role of mindfulness as a starting point in ultimately predicting PVTE. Third, the study explores whether and at what extent image components shape PVTE directly and indirectly via tourist experience. Last, it highlights the vital role of perceived authenticity in the prediction of PVTE regarding the weightage and direction of perceived authenticity's regulatory effect on the relationship between tourist experience and PVTE.
This research study offers important theoretical and practical implications. From a theoretical point of view, this is the first study that conceptualises PVTE through destination image components and tourist experience, also incorporating a construct that has not been included in the past, i.e. tourist's mindfulness. In this vein, the current study contributes to the extant literature of tourism services domain by offering new insights about the drivers of PVTE, a key variable in explaining tourists' decision making. From a practical perspective, this study serves as a basis for offering practitioners and destination management organisations (DMOs) management insights into the effective design and implementation of suitable marketing activities to increase tourists' perceived travel value. Following this introduction, the next sections provide the theoretical background, where we present the foundations for the proposed model and the hypotheses, followed by the method and the results. The last part of this article comprises the research implications, conclusions and suggestions for further research.
SCM is based on a dual information-processing model, which compares opposing mental states of mindfulness or mindlessness (Langer, 2000;Moscardo, 1996). SCM, also known as the Langer's perspective, focuses on how these states emerge in daily life and represents an interest in thinking and problem solving. In this context, increasing mindfulness means a change in an individual's awareness to become open to novelty, active engaged in the present and aware of multiple perspectives (e.g. Langer & Moldoveanu, 2000). Past research has employed SCM's perspective in the context of interpretation and how visitor learning and respond to stimuli and social situations (e.g. Moscardo, 2008).
By contrast, MM's perspective comes directly from Buddhist spirituality and healing philosophy (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). This perspective suggests that tourists should be aware of their inner-self, thoughts and emotions (Weick & Putnam, 2006). The current study considers mindful tourists as those who pay attention to the present moment (not in the past or future), attending to the actual somatic sensations lived at the destination in an open, non-reactive and non-judgement, rather tourists accept their present emotions and thoughts (e.g. Bishop et al., 2004;Bodhi, 2011). MM's perspective has been scarcely analysed in the tourism contexts; for example, Kang and Gretzel's (2012) study which suggests that tourists are more engaged with their surroundings while listening to a podcast. Also, Trinh and Ryan (2016) study indicates that clear awareness is an important mindful attribute for museum visitors.
Following Kang and Gretzel (2012), the present study conceptualises mindfulness via four components: attention, present-focus, awareness and non-judgment. Attention represents the individual paying attention to and concentrating on what they are doing in the moment. Present-focus refers to being focussed and open to the experience of the moment (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Awareness means 'the background radar of consciousness, continually monitoring the inner and outer environment and attention as a process of focusing conscious awareness, providing heightened sensitivity to a limited range of experiences' (Brown & Ryan, 2003, p. 822). The last dimension, namely non-judgment, expresses individual's tendency to avoid making judgements about the experience. Overall, mindful individuals are aware of their inner self and outer experiences, such as thoughts, emotions, sensations, actions, and surroundings (Bishop et al., 2004;Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007;Dutt & Ninov, 2016).

Destination image
Destination image has been widely studied in the tourism context and is defined as a set of impressions, expectations and emotional thoughts tourists have when visiting a destination (Stylos, Vassiliadis, Bellou, & Andronikidis, 2016). Gartner's (1993) approach to destination image is the most popular one and consists of three components: cognitive, affective and conative. The first component reflects the sum of beliefs and knowledge reflecting evaluations of the perceived attributes of the destination (Bigné, Sánchez, & Sanz, 2009;Stylos & Andronikidis, 2013). The second component expresses the feelings of tourists toward the destination (Bigné, Andreu, & Gnoth, 2005;Hallmann, Zehrer, & Müller, 2014). The emotional appraisal that comes from visiting the destination (Baloglu & McClearly, 1999;Bigné et al., 2005) can be developed in the process of selecting the destination to visit, during the visit or after the visit (Klenosky, 2002).
Finally, the conative component represents tourists' active consideration of a destination, and the desire and idealisation of the destination expressing oneself as a vacation choice and personal aspirations (Dann, 1996;Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004) that tourists want to experience and imagine through destinations. Further to this conceptualisation, it has been recently shown that these are clearly two different constructs, and thus conative image along with cognitive an affective ones influence tourists' decision making and the formation of tourist experience (Stylos et al., 2016(Stylos et al., , 2017White, 2014).
Moreover, destination image and mindfulness are two distinct by related concepts. Here, mindfulness is regarded as an alert participation in the ongoing process of the experience (Brown et al., 2007;Brown & Ryan, 2003;Bishop et al., 2004), that is, the tourists are focused, aware, have their attention to the present and do not judge their thoughts and perceptions about the destination (Kang & Gretzel, 2012). Thus, mindful tourists actively pay attention to the present moment through monitoring and observing (Brown et al., 2007) the internal and external environment, forming a different perception of destination image to that of less mindful tourists.
Mindfulnessfrom an MM aspectinduces in tourists mind a focus and a sense of calm that allows to better appraise the moment, see the positive elements in the environment.
Mindful tourists are open, non-reactive and non-judgemental; thus, these tourists accept the present moment (present-oriented), emotions and thought, reducing emotional distress and maladaptation behaviour (e.g. Bishop et al., 2004;Dreyfus, 2011;Weick & Putnam, 2006). This mental state of mindful tourists, i.e. their open-hearted stance and acceptance of the moment, is expected to induce in their inner-self a more positive approach about the destination experience than happen in less mindful tourists. This way it may be easier for them to see the positive aspects of the less favourable experiences compared to less mindful tourists. Based on the acknowledged role of mindfulness in underpinning attitudinal responses (Bishop et al., 2004;Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006), we postulate that highly mindful tourists will tend to form more positive destination images about the place where they build their experiences (Cherie & Dianne, 2010). Taken together, our expectation is that (see Figure 1

Perceived value of travel experience
Perceived value has been merely conceptualised as a multi-dimensional construct composed of perceived utility, the relative size of perceived benefits and sacrifice, psychological price, worth and quality (Woodruff, 1997). McDougall and Levesque (2000) conceptualised perceived value as the consumer's overall evaluation of what is the benefit over cost of acquiring a product. Following this concept, Lee et al. (2007) developed the Perceived Value of Travel Experience (PVTE) with three dimensions: functional value (relating to aspects such as fair price, value for money or good quality for the price), overall value (signifying the quality of decision making and level of meeting expectations with regards to visiting the selected tourism destination) and emotional value (meaning the perceived pleasure and joy when visiting the destination). Hence, the current study follows this approach to define PVTE as the tourist's overall evaluation of what is received and what is given in a certain destination measure with the three dimensions proposed by Lee et al. (2007).
Perceived value affects a tourist's choice behaviour at the pre-purchase stage, but also influences satisfaction and the intention to recommend and repurchase at the post-purchase stage (Alrawadieh, Prayag, Alrawadieh, & Alsalameen, 2019;Gallarza, Saura, & García, 2002;Lee et al., 2007;Prebensen et al., 2014). The way tourists appraise the destination image may affect the PVTE. The stimuli found at the destination, the feeling and sensations lived there (Bigné et al., 2009) and the self-determination and persistence in visiting the destination (Gartner, 1993) will influence the tourists' PVTE. The perception of destination image may operate as a driving force for PVTE (Prebensen et al., 2014), that is, for a tourist's evaluation of the value received in the visit to the destination. Hence, we anticipate that:

Tourist experience as a mediator
Tourist experience is a 'constant flow of thoughts and feelings during moments of consciousness' (Kang & Gretzel, 2012, p. 442), a subjective mental state experienced during a tourist activity (Otto & Ritchie, 1996), where learning, enjoyment, and escape represent facets of experience. Pine and Gilmore (1998) claim that experiences are more than passively see, watch or learn about the product, brand or destination, tourists want to actively engage in the process of experiences creation. Vittersø, Vorkinn, Vistad, and Vaagland (2000) argue for the concept of holistic experience, comparing the perceived situation and the tourist's cognitive schemas. The idea of overall experience connected to a destination evolved by Bigné, Sanchez, and Sanchez (2001) who point out that experience represents an overview of the destination, characterising the experience lived at a destination.
Later, Gentile, Spiller, and Noci (2007) alluded to a set of interactions between the customer (possibly a tourist) and the place, brand or organisation, which provoke reactions. The travel experience lived by tourists represents the feelings and thoughts occurring through complex interaction processes and these multiple relationships will cause reactions and favourable or unfavourable evaluations.
Tourist experience may be organised into three facets: learning, enjoyment and escape (Kang & Gretzel, 2012), which are employed in the current study. Learning means that the tourist is open to acquiring new information, knowledge and skills from the experience (e.g. Chang, Stylos, Yeh, & Tung, 2015;Oh, Fiore, & Jeoung, 2007;Pearce, 2005). The second component, called enjoyment, represents the pleasure and joy that tourists can receive in addition to the utilitarian aspects of the experience (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992). Then, escape occurs when the experience allows tourists to feel immersed in the environment and forget, for a while, the constraints of ordinary life (Pearce, 2005). Oh et al. (2007) also consider escapism and entertainment (or enjoyment) in their model for lodging experiences.
A favourable evaluation of the experience with the lodgings, museums, architecture, restaurants and landscape of a destination (that is, the tourist experience) would potentially contribute to creating a favourable destination image, thus leading to a positive assessment of the benefits of the tourist experience (Agapito et al., 2013). Since Prayag (2009) and Stylos et al. (2016) suggest that overall image may mediate the impact of destination image on the intention to revisit, here we argue that destination image may indirectly contribute to a favourable perception of the value of a destination though a positive overall evaluation of the experience. Thus, the environment at the destination creates the stimuli which will be interpreted in the tourist's mind. The experience at the destination may work to lever the influence of destination images on PVTE. Consequently, the expectation is that:

Perceived authenticity as a moderator
Authenticity has been associated with places and lodgings, expressing the idea of them being original, true in substance or trustworthy (Reisinger & Steiner, 2006). In the literature we can find three main approaches to authenticity (e.g. Barthel, 1996;Brown, 2013;Molleda, 2010;Ram, Bjork, & Weidenfeld, 2016;Reisinger & Steiner, 2006): (i)state of being (existential), (ii) characteristics of the focal object and level of experience and (iii) evaluative judgment. The first, state of being, is a psychological approach, where individuals understand 'oneself' by appreciating the world and the way it exists (Brown, 2013). Tourists understand the external world by balancing two parts of their being, the rational and the emotional. Thus, tourists may be open minded about living the authentic experience offered at the destination, without restrictions. Another approach regards the elements that describe objects, places, attractions, tourist experiences or destinations (Rickly-Boyd, 2012), which are intended to give originality, truth in substance, and genuineness.
The second refers to experience and evaluation and can be divided into object and symbolic authenticity (e.g. Barthel, 1996;Kolar & Zabkar, 2010;Reisinger & Steiner, 2006). Object authenticity is determined by experts (Reisinger & Steiner, 2006), while symbolic authenticity is perceived by tourists or consumers (Kolar & Zabkar, 2010), depending on the context and circumstances. Symbolic authenticity is associated with the subjectivity of tourists and what they experience when visiting the destination (Kolar & Zabkar, 2010;Molleda, 2010).
The thirdevaluative judgmentstems from the definition provided by Kolar and Zabkar (2010, p. 655), who define perceived authenticity as 'tourists' enjoyment and perceptions of how genuine their experiences (of a cultural attraction) are'. Thus, tourists' evaluative judgment is exploredvia testing the originality and trustworthiness of their experiences at Lisbon. In this context, two facets of authenticity are regarded: objectbased (or referential) and existential. The first one deals with the concrete elements (Molleda, 2010) of Lisbon's authenticity (e.g. architecture, interior and exterior design, and historical sites); the second one focuses on how open minded the tourists are about their experiences in Lisbon (Brown, 2013).
Due to this subjective evaluation of authenticity, based on tourist perceptions, we argue that a favourable overall evaluation and an emotional attachment developed will contribute to enhancing the perception of authenticity (Ram et al., 2016). When tourists are enthusiastic about the destination and perceive the place as genuine and with original characteristics, they will place more value on the travel experience. Therefore, the level of perceived authenticity may serve as a catalyst for the relationship between the evaluation of the experience and PVTE (Olsen, 2002), therefore, we hypothesise that: H6: Perceived authenticity moderates the effect of tourist experience on PVTE, such that this effect will be stronger for tourists who evaluate positively their travel experience.

Method
The partial least squares (PLS) technique has been employed to estimate the regression weights on the latent constructs' paths, as well as to test their respective significance. PLS has been chosen instead of covariance-based (CB) SEM, as data analysis in this study seeks to create new avenues for building theory building, rather than confirmation of structural relationships (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011). Because the proposed model demonstrates variations compared to the original TAM, the exploration of the underlying relationships would be better supported by PLS that maximises the explained variance of the dependent latent constructs (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2017).
The PLS algorithm calculates all path coefficients concurrently, avoiding biased and inconsistent parameter estimates (Curran et al., 2018). An advantage of utilising the PLS technique for assessing the partial model relations is the fact that the requirement for multivariate normality is largely relaxed because an iterative sequence of ordinary least squares regressions is implemented. This is practically achieved by attaining an asymptotic distribution-free estimates pattern through relatively large sample sizes (>200) (Mateos-Aparicio, 2011). In any case, a-priori sample size considerations should be made as per Hair et al. (2011), which suggests a sample size at a minimum of ten times the bigger set of arrows heading towards any construct. A second suggestion, and possibly a safer one, is to implement power analysis (Cohen, 1992;Hair et al., 2017).

Measurement instrument, sampling and procedures
Based on past studies, a survey questionnaire was first formed in English and then translated into Spanish. Double-back translation was used to ensure that the items in English and Spanish conveyed the same information (Sekaran, 1983). The last part of the questionnaire contained the socio-demographic data. A pilot test with 20 Spanish tourists was conducted prior to main survey launch to verify the questions were well understood by the respondents; we did not find any problems with the wording or measurements. Then, we pilot tested the questionnaire again with 80 Spanish tourists to check the reliability of the measurement items. The values of Cronbach's alpha for all constructs were above 0.7, regarding as acceptable (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Consecutively, we proceeded with the main survey. Data were collected via a self-administered structured questionnaire. A team of 9 experienced field researchers from ISCTE-IUL worked voluntarily in the field in teams of three, with one of them acting as research coordinator daily during 15th-25th June 2017. Spanish leisure travellers who visited and stayed for at least two nights in Lisbon and departing from Lisbon Humberto Delgado International airport towards the main Spanish airports (return), were asked to provide their opinions while waiting in the transit area, between 9:00 am and 7:00 pm. A systematic sampling procedure was followed, approaching one out of every three travellers entering the designated room and asking them to participate in the survey. As a second step, a few qualifying questions were asked about their nationality, place of permanent residence, whether they visited for leisure, and if they stayed in the city only, or went to other places of Portugal too. Consequently, leisure travellers from Spain, who visited Lisbon only, were finally invited to complete the questionnaire.
We chose to intercept Spanish tourists because they represent the largest inbound tourist group for Portugal, and particularly Lisbon (accounting for 31.9% of all tourists that come to Lisbon) (INE, 2017). A total of 442 Spanish tourists were asked to participate and 382 agreed (a response rate of 86.42%), yielding 370 usable questionnaires with a final response rate of 83.71%. This sample size is deemed to be satisfactory as according to Hair et al. (2011), the sample should be minimum 50 (10 × 5 arrows), and the recommended sample size should be 205, by utilising power analysis for a statistical power of 80% (and also 1% level of significance with minimum R 2 equal to 0.10most conservative case), and maximum number of arrows pointing at a latent variable being equal to 5.
The resulting sample consists of 48.3% male and 51.7% female respondents, with half of them (50.7%) being married and about 12% living alone. Most participants were between 41 and 60 years of age. Regarding their educational level, 19.2% had a university degree (or were studying towards it), and 60.8% had technical training. The vast majority of respondents (i.e. 44%) were full-time and part-time employees, 17.0% were freelance professionals, 15.0% were pensioners and the remainder were entrepreneurs, unemployed or home-makers. Travellers visit Lisbon in average for three days (range from 2 to 7 days).

Measures
The measurement scales for all three destination images components were adopted from Stylos et al. (2016), with only slight modifications for the cognitive image. This adaptation introduced an item about Lisbon's famous gastronomic tourism, and its validity and reliability where examined through two pilot tests that preceded the main survey. Thus, the cognitive image comprises 22 items, which produced measures of perceived consequences and evaluations of importance. For the first set we employed a seven-point Likert-type scale from '1 = strongly disagree' to '7 = strongly agree' and for the second set (importance evaluation) we used '1 = very unimportant' to '7 = very important' and we also included '0 = No answer' to avoid false neutral evaluations (Shoemaker, Eichholz, & Skewes, 2002). Affective image was measured with seven items. Participants were asked to rate Lisbon as a tourist destination using seven bipolar feelings. The scale was 7-point semantic differential. Finally, conative image was measured via an 8-item scale proposed by Stylos et al. (2016). Participants were asked to respond on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from '1 = strong disagree' to '7 = strong agree', and the option of '0 = No answer' was added.
The scales included in Kang and Gretzel (2012) were utilised to measure mindfulness, as well as tourist experience. The first employed 14 items using a 7-point Likert-type scale ('1 = strongly disagree' and '7 = strongly agree') and the added option of '0 = No answer'. The second with nine items was measured using a 7-point Likert-type scale (i.e. '1 = strongly disagree' and '7 = strongly agree'), plus a '0 = No answer' for those tourists that had difficulty in responding.
Perceived authenticity was measured with the scale proposed by Kolar and Zabkar (2010) with some adaptations. Therefore, we used a set of 10 items employing a 7-point Likert-type scale ('1 = strongly disagree' and '7 = strongly agree', and an extra point '0 = No answer). Finally, the scale suggested by Lee et al. (2007) was utilised to measure PVTE with fifteen items, where we employed a 7-point Likert-scale type ('1 = strongly disagree' and '7 = strongly agree'), adding an extra scale point '0 = No answer' for those tourists that could not provide a reply (see also Appendix 1).

Results
Analysis started with missing value analysis and relevant data imputation. The outcomes indicated that missing values are completely random (χ 2 = 22,634.45, df = 22,380, Sig. = 0.115) (Little, 1988) and data imputation was processed by utilising the Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm. Concerning the univariate normality of the data, both skewness and kurtosis were within limits for all independent variables, ranging from −0.997-0.021 for the former and −0.979 to 0.971 for the latter, thus univariate normality can be claimed. Furthermore, we calculated scale reliability, before proceeding with testing the proposed model. Multivariate normality was tested with an outliers check via Cook's distance (CD) analysis; in all cases it was found that CDi < 1 (Lee & Wang, 1996), thus the test did not indicate any outliers that would be flagged as influential.
The partial-least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) techniqueusing SmartPLS 3.0was employed. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)with PLS algorithm using factor modewas conducted to explicitly specify the pattern of loadings of the measurement items on the latent constructs and remove any indicators with a minimal contribution to explaining the latent constructs. In the current study Partial Least Squares approach seems to be the appropriate statistical tool to identify key drivers of PVTE and having formatively measured constructs in a complex model (Hair et al., 2017).
An initial model, with mindfulness, cognitive image, tourist experience, perceived authenticity and PVTE, modelled as first-order reflective second-order formative, was assessed (see Figure 2), followed by a first-order factor hierarchical regression analysis that was performed to examine the final measurement model after creating latent variable composite scores for all theoretical constructs. Lastly, the causal relationships shown in Figure 1 were tested to predict the significance of the model paths related to the hypothesis testing and the predictive power of the inner model (see Figure 3).
With regards to the initial measurement model (second-order factor constructs), internal consistency, composite reliability, as well as convergent (see Table 1) and discriminant validity were examined and found to support the factorial structure of the proposed model (see Table 2).
Furthermore, the use of the iterative application of CFA has refined the proposed scales of all constructs except for evaluation of the travel experience and PVTE, removing 14 indicators in total due to some factor loadings being below 0.5 (Janssens, De Pelsmacker, Wijnen, & Van Kenhove, 2008).
After creating latent scores for all constructs, the significance of the paths of the final first-order model was examined. This was operationalised by using regression weights and t-values to calculate the corresponding p-values, employing consistent bootstrapping of 5,000 samples. The variance inflation factor (VIF) values were found to range between 1.000 and 1.552 (see Appendix 2), indicating that multicollinearity should not be of concern since all the values are lower than the cut-off value of 3.3 (Ali, Amin, & Cobanoglu, Figure 2. Initial model (first-order reflective, second-order formative for mindfulness, cognitive image, tourist experience, perceived authenticity and PVTE) with item loadings after removal of indicators.  Table 2), and therefore we can claim that the discriminant validity of the constructs has been established. As indicated by the path loadings and associated significance levels, there is evidence for support of all hypotheses, except for H4 and H6. Specifically, the effects of mindfulness on the three destination image components has been found to be strongly significant and positive (β M→CI = .334, β M→AI = .347, β M→CnI = .245, p < .001), thus H1, and H1a, H1b and H1c, respectively cannot be rejected (see Figure 2). The direct influences of destination image components on PVTE are all positive and significant except for the conative image (β CI→PVTE = .141, p = .003; β AI→PVTE = .198, p < .001; β CnI→PVTE = −.022, p = .585), thus providing support for H2 and H3, but not for H4. Additionally, the effects of all three image components on PVTE via tourist experience are strongly significant and positive, providing support to hypothesis H5; thus, altogether, the tourist experience construct  shapes two partial mediations, and also reveals an indirect effect between the cognitive, affective and conative image on the one hand and PVTE on the other, respectively (see Table 3).
Regarding the mediating effects of tourist experience on the relationship between each dimension of destination image and PVTE, we analysed the direct and indirect effects, as well as the 'Variance Accounted For' (VAF). The VAF for the partial mediations is normed between 0% and 100% (Helm, Eggert, & Garnefeld, 2010). Higher VAF values suggest stronger partial mediations. Two out of the three mediations are partial mediations, with a VAF of 34.7% for the relationship between cognitive image and PVTE, and 41.8% for the affective image -PVTE relationship. However, the strongest full mediation is 88.7%i.e. above 80%for the conative image and PVTE relationship. Thus, the results indicate that, for all three partial mediations (particularly the last one), a significant portion of the total effect comes through the indirect path.
In terms of the proposed moderating effect, the analysis does not support this, leading to the rejection of H6. However, an emerging direct and positive significant effect is found for perceived authenticity on PVTE (β PercAuth→PVTE = .219, p < .001), therefore reflecting a different effect, one of control (see Figure 3). The predictive power of this first-order structural model is high, explaining R 2 = 42.1% of the variance in tourist experience and 57.6% of the variance in PVTE, respectively. To examine the predictive relevance of the endogenous constructs, the blindfolding procedure of Stone-Geisser test was executed with an omission distance D = 7 and this produced positive Q 2 values for all constructs (0.106-0.545 > 0), corroborating the high predictive value of the model (for details see Table 3).
Additionally, the f 2 effect size values have been estimated to show the changes in R 2 when exogenous variables are omitted. The effect sizes for cognitive, affective and conative images show medium effects (f 2 = 0.161, 0.155, 0.151, respectively), and the effect sizes for tourist experience through the three image dimensions are medium too (f 2 = 0.143, 0.165, 0.257, respectively). Effect size values of perceived authenticity and tourist

Discussion
Past research in the field of tourism has examined the effect of mindfulness on subjective well-being. This study has gone further to explore the influence of mindfulness on destination image, tourist experience and the perceived value of travel experience. The direct effects of mindfulness on each of the three dimensions of destination image are significant, and, interestingly, the findings show that the influence is stronger for the affective image. This is in line with the attributes of affective image (the feelings of pleasure, enjoyment, excitement, fun) (Baloglu & McClearly, 1999;Bigné et al., 2005;Hallmann et al., 2014), which is further associated with the meaning of mindfulness (Moscardo, 1999). Mindful tourists tend to be more receptive to events, experiences, and realities (Brown et al., 2007) than less mindful tourists and this may lead to them having more positive affective experiences, as Cherie and Dianne (2010) argue. The tourist experience seems to play an important role as a mediator between destination image and PVTE. In the current study, it is possible to confirm the effect of destination image on tourist experience evaluation, in line with Bigné et al. (2001). Of the three components of destination image, conative image, or the idealisation, dream or desire to visit Lisbon as a destination, emerges as the most important, acting as mediator, with its indirect effect on PVTE via tourist experience ranking first. This finding is important, since this component tends to be the most neglected by researchers when studying destination image (e.g. Gallarza et al., 2002;White, 2014). In a tourist's mind, a destination regarded as a dream, as rewarding and as a place where they constantly wish to visit (Dann, 1996;Gallarza et al., 2002), together with a positive overall evaluation of the tourist experience, are two significant drivers of the emotional and functional valuing of the destination. They consider the destination as worth it. Our findings are also in keeping with the Stylos et al. (2016) study, where affective and conative image play an important role in influencing the holistic image. In this vein, the overall evaluation of the destination is more important in predicting PVTE than the different images of a destination. The reason for this may lie in the fact that the overall evaluation of the destination represents, in a tourist's mind, the attributes of the destination that are most meaningful to tourists. These more meaningful aspects contribute favourably to perceived value when selecting and living the experience at a destination.
In relation to the insignificant direct effect of conative image on PVTE (H4 was rejected), this result could be related to the choice of our sample. Conative image is associated with desires and the idealisation of future situations and Spanish tourists come to Portugal very frequently and very easily due to it being so close. They already know what to expect and they tend to enjoy coming and revisiting. As a result, they will not confer perceived value on this dimension. However, as discussed, conative image together with affective image are two important components of destination image in influencing the tourist experience and this has a significant direct effect on PVTE, reinforcing the fact that tourists tend to think about the most meaningful attributes of the destination when answering the survey. This is what is also important when valuing the experience, rather than any particular type of image.
Tourist experience exercises a mediating effect between each of the three dimensions of destination image and PVTE. The mediating effect is particularly significant in the case of conative image. Since conative image represents a tourist's active consideration of a destination as a potential travel destination (Agapito et al., 2013) and the desire for future travel (Dann, 1996), it will be quite important for tourists to enjoy their visit, spend time being open to new knowledge and immerse themselves in the new context of the destination (Kang & Gretzel, 2012). This positive experience is a key factor in enhancing PVTE.
Although perceived authenticity does not moderate the relationship between tourist experience and PVTE, it does exert a strong controlling effect. One possible explanation for this effect may be derived from the meaning of authenticity itself, reflecting the originality, genuineness, and trustworthiness (Kolar & Zabkar, 2010;Ram et al., 2016) of a destination as perceived by tourists, which Lisbon demonstrates through its tradition, history, extensive heritage and unique architecture. Therefore, these authentic destination characteristics create a favourable and a positive perception regarding the value of the resources spent on living the Lisbon experience.

Conclusions and implications
This study analyses the effect of tourists' mindfulness on PVTE, through destination image components and the evaluation of the tourist experience. We also explore the mediating role of evaluation of the tourist experience between destination image and PVTE and the moderating effect of perceive authenticity. The results found in this study show that all proposed hypotheses are supported except for two of them. Thus, mindfulness is shown to play an important role in enhancing destination image and this, in turn, contributes directly to the tourist experience and indirectly to PVTE. The exception is conative image and the non-significant influence of conative image on PVTE reinforces the significant mediating effect of the overall tourist experience on the relationship between destination image and PVTE. The results also reveal that perceived authenticity has a direct effect on PVTE, but a moderating effect for perceived authenticity has not been supported.
The study has the following theoretical implications. First, this research contributes to the relevant literature by showing the impact of mindfulness on PVTE, through destination image. To do so, the current study follows the meditative type of mindfulness (MM). The criteria employed to select the travellers ensure that the sample consists of tourists coming from Spain who decided to visit Lisbon and no other parts of Portugal, thus further strengthening the validity of the results, as a potential overlap of memories has been largely avoided.
Second, the mediating role of the tourist experience on the process of creating a favourable PVTE is investigated. It has resulted that tourist experience functions as a key transmitting mechanism delivering a flow of thoughts and feelings from a tourist's centre of attention onto formulating a perception of the travel experience value during their visit to the destination.
Third, the study suggests that perceived authenticity has a positive control effect on PVTE. Indeed, the tourists' evaluative judgment about the genuineness of a destination influences tourist's overall evaluation of what is received and what is given when experiencing the destination. In other words, authenticity needs to be included when modelling the value of travel experience, as it is based on the element of uniqueness of a tourism destination which influences many different aspects of tourists' decision-making processes in tourism and hospitality (e.g. Wong, Ji, & Liu, 2018).
Overall, from a theoretical viewpoint the study introduces a new way of modelling the part of tourists' decision making that precedes perceived value creation and perception. This implies a key theoretical contribution that could be further utilised when investigating for intended or actual behaviour (e.g. destination revisits, purchasing vacations plans etc.).
The results suggest three mains practical implications. First, managers of lodgings, museums, as well as DMOs, should consider the fact that mindful tourists tend to experience and immerse themselves in the destination more intensively than less mindful tourists. When they enjoy the experience their corresponding evaluation and the resulting perceived value may be higher. Therefore, creating the right atmosphere for mindful visitors would enhance the social environment and create more positive word-of-mouth recommendations. This atmosphere could be fostered through tours that show the distinct characteristics of the destination. Also, activities that stimulate tourists' knowledge, emotions and desires, such as local festivals, folklore events as well as fairs and exhibitions of traditional or contemporary art would also be helpful in that direction. Another very important marketing tool that could is storytelling in various forms. This could take the form of transmedia storytelling, which has the power to pass content about the destination by means of various digital platforms. Virtual reality has also an important role to play, as relevant applications can help tourists visit a place and go back in time by just holding their smartphones against sceneries, landmarks or ruins of past times. DMO managers and tourism marketing agencies should make use of these media tools to create unique impressions in every possible opportunity offered.
Government bodies in a destination should start to take notice of this finding. Questions about mindfulness could be introduced into longitudinal surveys organised to obtain the perceptions of tourists about the destination. This would allow us to monitor changes over time in the target Spanish tourist that come to visit Lisbon. With this knowledge, it would be easier to promote the destination externally, taking into consideration the desire and nature of the tourists. Marketing efforts could attempt to reach out to tourist who claim to seek a mindfully oriented learning, excitement-based, or reflectivetype experience once at a destination. For instance, tour guides could be trained to engage tourists in two-way communication, during which tourists are given the opportunity to ask questions and present their own opinions, via face-to-face interaction as well as via social media platforms. In addition, in printed materials the information should be presented in a way that encourages the active participation of tourists in synthesising various pieces of knowledge about the destination.
Second, tourist experience is an important predictor of PVTE and this tends to be mainly influenced by affective and conative image. Therefore, these two image components should be taken seriously when organising and structuring the positioning strategy of a destination. As Agapito et al. (2013) argue, cognitive image is more stable than the other images and so managers should constantly be aware of tourist interests and desires, to adjust their marketing strategies. Government bodies at a certain destination must organise events for tourists in their country of origin, with the collaboration of restaurant and hotel owners, as well as other organisations directly or indirectly related to tourism (e.g. wine sector, festival and entertainment activities, museums and other attractions) to promote the destination and sow the seeds for an emotional attachment and desire to visit the destination.
Third, given the important direct role of tourist experience and perceived authenticity on PVTE, we recommend that government bodies and local entities develop their tourism strategies integrating the perceptions and visions of citizens at the destination, tourists, private owners of attractions, lodgings and restaurants with the public spaces. Only with integrated and holistic planning of the destination is it possible to offer a memorable destination. For instance, providing a good hotel infrastructure with professional employees (with tangible skills but also with empathy with tourists) but having public spaces that are not well organised or visually appealing does not help create a consistent and favourable overall impression in tourists' minds. Thus, the way a destination is promoted and communicated and the consistency between the different attributes (this includes the originality and authenticity of museums and attractions at the destination) of the destination are key factors in enhancing the PVTE.
These findings should be interpreted with caution for several reasons, as this is just a first step in researching the topic. The sample was collected at a single destination, the perceptions came from Spanish tourists only, which is great for extracting useful conclusions for this particular setting, but generalisations to other settings (destinations/ tourist groups) should be avoided. Therefore, this study may be replicated using data from different destinations and experiences, as well as from tourists of different nationalities. Additionally, a future study may distinguish between tourists who make their first visit to Lisbon and those who have visited the destination before.
Fourth, other constructs may be added to the model that could explain PVTE. For instance, place attachment, i.e. the emotional bonds to the destination, may influence the perceived value of travel experience. Tourists more emotionally linked to the destination may perceive the destination as more valuable than tourists who are less attached. Another example is word-of-mouth (WOM), that is, tourists who attribute value to a destination will be more likely to spread the word to others and recommend the destination. Thus, WOM may be regarded as an alternative outcome variable. Finally, in the future, it would be interesting to explore the model tested according to various age groups, socio-economic statuses and other personal characteristics of the tourists.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Lisbon was always a dream-destination to visit sometime during my lifetime. CnI2 a.

ORCID
It seems a suitable vacation choice. CnI3 Helps me use knowledge that I have (i.e. history, geography etc.) CnI4 a.
Was always or is a personal goal for vacations. CnI5 As a choice, it stems from a personal need of mine that had to be fulfilled. CnI6 I have wanted to visit it for some time.

CnI7
Encapsulates positive attributes that help develop my personality.

CnI8
Makes me believe that my vacations there may be the best reward/gift I can offer myself. I derived a lot of pleasure from Lisbon.

Perceived authenticity
Object-based authenticity OBA1 The overall architecture and impression of Lisbon inspired me. OBA2 I liked the specific features of the interior and exterior design/ furnishings of iconic buildings. OBA3 I liked the way Lisbon blends in with the attractive landscape/scenery/ historical sites/ town, which offers many interesting places for sightseeing. OBA4 I liked the information about Lisbon and found it interesting. Existential authenticity EXA1 a.
I liked the special arrangements, events, concerts, celebrations connected to Lisbon. EXA2 This visit to Lisbon provided a thorough insight into a unique historical era. EXA3 During the visit to Lisbon I got a feel for its history, legends and historical personalities. EXA4 I enjoyed the unique experience of being in Lisbon. EXA5 I liked the distinct and unique atmosphere during my visit to Lisbon. EXA6 I felt connected to human history and civilisation. PVTE Functional value FV1 Visiting Lisbon was reasonably priced. FV2 a.
Visiting Lisbon was cheap. FV3 Given the cost of the trip, I was happy with the quality from visiting Lisbon. FV4 Compared to other tourist destinations, visiting Lisbon is good value for money. FV5 Lisbon is a high-quality tourist product. FV6 While visiting Lisbon I received good service.

Emotional value EV1
Visiting Lisbon gave me pleasure. EV2 Visiting Lisbon made me feel better. EV3 After visiting Lisbon, my image of it was improved. EV4 Lisbon is a destination that I enjoy. Overall value OV1 The choice to visit Lisbon was a right decision. OV2 I obtained good results from visiting Lisbon. OV3 Overall, visiting Lisbon is valuable and worth it. OV4 a.
The value of visiting Lisbon was more than I expected.

OV5
Lisbon is a place where I want to travel. Note: a. Eliminated item